SUPPORTING MATERIAL

Alternative Plate Boundaries Map

Figure S12.1. The plate boundaries and relative displacements (red arrows) of modern Earth. (USGS)

Terminology of Extensional Tectonics

Accommodation zones Normal fault systems are not continuous along the length of a rift. Rather, rifts are divided into segments, whose axes may be offset from one another. Further, the faults of one segment may dip in the opposite direction to the faults of another segment. An accommodation zone is the region of complex structure that links the ends of two rift segments. Accommodation zones typically include strike-slip faults.

Active margin A continental margin that coincides with either a strike-slip or convergent plate boundary, and is tectonically (seismically) active.

Aulacogen An unsuccessful (or, failed) rift that cuts across a continental margin at a high angle to the margin. Typically, aulacogens transect the grain of an orogen that borders the margin. Aulacogens may represent failed arms of three-armed rifts, or they may simply be older rifts (formed long before the development of the continental margin, during an earlier episode of rifting at a different orientation) that were cut off when the margin formed.

Axis (of rift or MOR) The center line along the length of a rift or an ocean ridge (MOR). The trend of the axis is the overall trend of the rift.

Breakaway fault The normal fault that forms the edge of the rift. (A breakaway fault forms the boundary between stretched and non-stretched crust).

Graben A narrow, symmetric trough or basin, bounded on both sides by normal faults that dip toward the center of the trough.

Half-graben An asymmetric basin formed on the back of a tilted fault block; one border of the basin is a normal fault.

Horst An elongate, symmetric crustal block bordered on both sides by normal faults; both faults dip away from the center of the horst.

Listric normal fault A normal fault whose dip decreases with depth, thereby making the fault surface concave upward.

Ocean ridge The elongate submarine mountain range that is the bathymetric manifestation of a divergent plate boundary. Whereas some ocean ridges (e.g., the Mid-Atlantic Ridge) lie in the center of ocean basins, others (e.g., the East Pacific Rise) do not, so we do not favor the term mid-ocean ridge for ocean spreading ridges.

Oblique rifting Rifting that occurs where the stretching direction is at an acute angle to the rift axis.

Passive margin A continental margin that is not a plate boundary and, therefore, is not seismically active. It is underlain by the relict of a successful rift. The rift relict subsides and is buried by a thick wedge of sediment.

Planar normal fault A normal fault whose dip remains constant with depth.

Non-rotational normal fault A normal fault on which slip does not result in rotation of the hanging-wall block.

Rift (rift system) A belt of continental lithosphere that is undergoing, or has undergone, extensional deformation (i.e., stretching); also called a continental rift.

Rift–drift transition The time at which active rift faulting ceases and seafloor spreading begins (i.e., the time at which an ocean ridge initiates, and the relicts of a rift become the foundation of a passive margin).

Rifting The process by which continental lithosphere undergoes extensional deformation (stretching) by the formation and activity of normal faults.

Rotational normal fault A normal fault whose hanging wall block rotates around a horizontal axis during slip.

Subsidence The sinking of the surface of the lithosphere. Subsidence produces sedimentary basins. For example, the relict of a successful rift subsides to form a passive-margin basin.

Successful rift A rift in which stretching has proceeded until the continent cut by the rift ruptures to form two pieces separated by a new ocean ridge.

Transfer fault A dominantly strike-slip fault that links two normal faults that are not coplanar; some transfer faults serve as accommodation zones.

READING

Bosworth, W., 1994. A model for the three-dimensional evolution of continental rift basins, northeast Africa. Geologische Rundschau, 83, 671–688.

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Dixon, T. H., Ivins, E. R., and Franklin, B. J., 1989. Topographic and volcanic asymmetry around the Red Sea: constraints on rift models. Tectonics, 8, 1193–1216.

Eaton, G. B., 1982. The Basin and Range Province: origin and tectonic significance. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Science, 10, 409–440.

Ebinger, C. J., 1989. Tectonic development of the western branch of the East African Rift. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 101, 885–903. Gibbs, A. D., 1984. Structural evolution of extensional basin margins. Journal of the Geological Society of London, 141, 609–620.

Lister, G. S., and Davis, G. A., 1989. The origin of metamorphic core complexes and detachment faults during Tertiary continental extension in the northern Colorado River region. Journal of Structural Geology, 11, 65–94.

Macdonald, K. C., 1982. Mid-ocean ridges: fine-scale tectonic, volcanic and hydrothermal processes within the plate boundary zone. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 10, 155–190. McClay, K. R., and White, M. J., 1995. Analogue modelling of orthogonal and oblique rifting. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 12, 137–151.

McKenzie, D. P., 1978. Some remarks on the development of sedimentary basins. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 40, 15–32.

Parsons, B., and Sclater, J. G., 1977. An analysis of the variation of ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age. Journal of Geophysical Research, 82, 803–827.

Rosendahl, B. R., 1987. Architecture of continental rifts with special reference to East Africa. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 15, 445–503.

Wernicke, B., 1985. Uniform-sense normal simple shear of the continental lithosphere. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 22, 108–125.

Wernicke, B., and Burchfiel, B. C., 1982. Modes of extensional tectonics. Journal of Structural Geology, 4, 105–115.

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