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1. GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES AND DEFORMATION REGIMES INTRODUCTION CLASSIFICATION OF GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES -The Use of Bedding in Structural Analysis --Graded Beds and Cross Beds --Surface Markings --Disrupted Bedding -Conformable and Unconformable Contacts -Compaction and Diagenetic Structures -Penecontemporaneous Structures SALT STRUCTURES Why Halokinesis? -Geometry of Salt Structures and Associated Processes -Other Gravity-Driven Structures -Importance of Salt Structures IGNEOUS STRUCTURES -Structures Associated with Sheet Intrusions -Structures Associated with Plutons -Structures Associated with Volcanic Extrusion -Cooling Fractures IMPACT STRUCTURES DEFORMATION STRUCTURES -Structural Analysis and Scales of Observation -Guidelines for Structural Analysis -Deformation Regimes -Plate Tectonics
INTRODUCTION -Mechanics -Units and Fundamental Quantities -Force STRESS -2D Stress: Normal Stress and Shear Stress -3d Stress: Principal Planes and Principal Stresses -The Components of 3D Stress -The Stress Ellipsoid DERIVING KEY STRESS RELATIONSHIPS MOHR DIAGRAM FOR STRESS -Constructing the Mohr Diagram STRESS STATES -Common Stress States in Mohr Space ISOTROPIC STRESS AND NON-ISOTROPIC STRESS METHODS OF STRESS MEASUREMENT -Present-Day Stress -Global Stress Patterns -Paleostress
INTRODUCTION -Brittle Deformation -Categories of Brittle Deformation PROCESSES OF BRITTLE DEFORMATION -An Atomistic View TENSILE CRACKING -Elasticity -Stress Concentration AXIAL EXPERIMENTS -Modes of Crack-Surface Displacement FORMATION OF SHEAR FRACTURES -Shear Failure Criteria and Failure Envelopes STRESS AND FAULT TYPES: ANDERSON’S THEORY LIMITING STRESSES FOR SLIDING ROLE OF FLUIDS -Effect of Pore Pressure on Failure
INTRODUCTION SURFACE FEATURES OF JOINTS -Plumose Structure -Why Does Plumose Structure Form? JOINT ARRAYS -Joint Sets and Joint Systems -Cross-Cutting Relations between Joints -Joint Spacing -Joint spacing and bed thickness -Joint spacing and lithology -Joint spacing and tensile strength -Joint spacing and the magnitude of strain ORIGIN AND INTERPRETATION OF JOINTS -Related to Uplift and Unroofing -Sheeting (or Exfoliation) Joints -Hydraulic Fracturing JOINT TERMINATIONS VEINS AND VEIN ARRAYS -Formation of Vein Arrays -Blocky and Fibrous Vein Fill -Interpretation of Fibrous Veins LINEAMENTS
INTRODUCTION FAULT GEOMETRIES AND DISPLACEMENT -Basic Vocabulary FAULT SYSTEMS -Geometric Classification of Fault Arrays -Normal Fault Systems -Reverse Fault Systems -Strike-Slip Fault Systems -Inversion of Fault Systems FAULT BENDS -Dip-Slip Faults -Strike-Slip Faults SUBSIDIARY FAULTS FAULT DIMENSIONS AND TERMINATIONS -Fault Terminations -Fault Dimensions and Self-Similarity FAULT SURFACES -Slickensides and Slip Lineations FAULT ROCKS -Classification of Fault Rocks Fault Character with Depth FAULT ROCKS: MYLONITES -Types of Mylonites MECHANICS OF FAULTS -The Thrust Paradox -Thrust Wedges FAULTS AND SOCIETY -Faulting and Resources -Faulting and Earthquakes
INTRODUCTION DEFORMATION AND STRAIN HOMOGENEOUS STRAIN AND STRAIN ELLIPSE STRAIN PATH COAXIAL AND NON-COAXIAL STRAIN SUPERIMPOSED STRAIN STRAIN QUANTITIES -Longitudinal Strain -Volumetric Strain -Angular Strain -Other Strain Quantities -Natural Strain FINITE STRAIN MEASUREMENT -Initially Spherical Objects -Variably-shaped Objects --Center-to-Center Method --Rf /φ Method -Angular and Length Changes --Angular Changes --Length Changes LESSONS FROM STRAIN ANALYSIS -Patterns in Strain Quantities -What Do We Measure?
INTRODUCTION VISCOSITY -Strain Rate CRYSTAL DEFECTS -Point Defects -Line Defects (or Dislocations) CRYSTAL PLASTICITY DISLOCATION CREEP -Dislocation Glide -Cross-Slip and Climb -Strain and Dislocations WHERE DO DISLOCATIONS COME FROM? DEFORMATION MICROSTRUCTURES -Mechanical Twinning (Low-T Plasticity) -Recovery (Low- to Medium T Plasticity) -Recrystallization (Medium-T Plasticity) --Mechanisms of Recrystallization --Stress and Recrystallization DIFFUSIONAL MASS TRANSFER -Grain-Boundary and Volume Diffusion -Pressure Solution -Superplasticity DEFORMATION MECHANISM MAPS -Applications and Limits CONFUSING TERMINOLOGY? -Deformation Behaviors, Mechanisms and Regimes -Brittle and Ductile Behavior
INTRODUCTION ANATOMY OF A FOLD -Fold Facing: Antiform, Synform, and Anticline, Syncline FOLD CLASSIFICATION -Fold Orientation -Fold Shape in Profile FOLD SYSTEMS -The Enveloping Surface -Fold Symmetry and Fold Vergence A FEW SPECIAL FOLD GEOMETRIES MECHANICS OF FOLDING -Passive Folding and Active Folding -Buckle Folds -Folded Multi-layers KINEMATICS OF FOLDING -Flexural Slip/Flow Folding -Neutral-surface Folding -Fold Shape Modification -Example Scenarios FAULT-RELATED FOLD GEOMETRIES -Fault-bend Folds -Fault-propagation Folds --Detachment Folds SUPERPOSED FOLDING -Principle of Fold Superposition -Fold Interference Patterns -Elements of Fold Style -Fold Transposition --Sheath Folds -A Final Note
9. FABRICS AND FABRIC ELEMENTS INTRODUCTION FABRIC TERMINOLOGY FOLIATIONS -Cleavage --Disjunctive Cleavage --Pencil Cleavage --Slaty Cleavage --Phyllitic Cleavage --Cleavage Refraction --Crenulation Cleavage --Synthesis: Bedding-Cleavage Relationships -Schistosity -Gneissosity FOLIATION KINEMATICS AND METAMORPHISM FOLIATIONS AND STRAIN -Cleavage and Strain -Mylonitic Foliations and Strain --Rotated Grains --Foliation Orientation LINEATIONS -Form Lineations -Surface Lineations -Mineral Lineations -Interpretation of Lineations
INTRODUCTION ROCK CREEP CURVE LINEAR RHEOLOGIES -Visco-elastic Behavior -Elastico-viscous Behavior -General Linear Behavior DEFORMATION ENVIRONMENTS -Deformation Apparatus -Confining Pressure -Temperature -Pore-Fluid Pressure -Strain Rate Strain-dependent Behavior -Competency and Strength -Synthesis: From Laboratory to Nature A MICROSTRUCTURAL VIEW OF LABORATORY BEHAVIOR NON-LINEAR RHEOLOGY EARTH’S RHEOLOGIC LAYERING -Strength Profiles -The Lithosphere -The Asthenosphere
INTRODUCTION EARTH’S INTERNAL LAYERS -Seismic Layering THE CRUST -Oceanic Crust -Continental Crust -Age of the Crust -The Moho THE MANTLE -Subdivision of the Mantle -Mantle Plumes THE CORE THE TENETS OF PLATE TECTONICS -Insights from Earthquakes KINEMATICS OF PLATE TECTONICS -Absolute Plate Velocities -Relative Plate Velocities -Triple Junctions MECHANICS OF PLATE TECTONICS -Plate-driving Forces PLATE TECTONIC CYCLES -Wilson Cycle -Supercontinent Cycle
INTRODUCTION TECTONICS OF OCEAN RIDGES CROSS-SECTIONAL STRUCTURE OF A RIFT -Normal Fault Systems -Examples of Rift Structure in Cross Section -Rift Topography and Rift-Margin Uplifts -Rock Assemblages in Rifts -Rift Accommodation Zones KINEMATICS OF RIFTING -Cordilleran Metamorphic Core Complexes -Stretching and Subsidence RIFT EVOLUTION PASSIVE MARGINS CAUSES OF RIFTING
INTRODUCTION CONVERGENT PLATE MARGINS -The Downgoing Slab -The Trench -The Accretionary Wedge -The Forearc Basin and the Volcanic Arc -The Backarc Region -Plate Coupling at Convergent Margins COLLISIONAL TECTONICS -Stage 1: Pre-collision and Initial Interaction -Stage 2: Abortive Subduction and Suturing -Stage 3: Crustal Thickening and Extensional Collapse COLLISIONAL OROGENY -Fold-Thrust Belts --Settings of Fold-Thrust Belts --Generalized Cross-section of a Fold-Thrust Belt -Kinematics of Thrust Systems -Insights from Modeling RELATED PROCESSES OF COLLISIONAL TECTONICS -Extrusion Tectonics -Plateau Uplift -Accretionary Tectonics OROGENIC ARCHITECTURE -Curved Orogens (Oroclines) -Speculation on Orogenic Styles
INTRODUCTION CLASSES OF STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS -Transfer Faults -Transcurrent Faults STRIKE-SLIP SYSTEMS -Distributed Deformation in Strike-Slip Zones -Transpression and Transtension -Restraining and Releasing Bends -Strike-Slip Duplexes -Understanding the Complexity of Strike-Slip Zones SETTINGS OF CONTINENTAL STRIKE-SLIP ZONES -Continental Transfer Faults -Continental Transcurrent Faults -Settings of Oceanic Strike-Slip Zones -Oceanic Transform Faults -Oceanic Fracture Zones
v3.0; last update: 15-feb-20 |